pedagogy.ir > Learning Paradigms > Constructivism
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Thursday, 05 August 2010 00:00
Constructing on Constructivism: The Role of Technology - A. Nanjappa & M.M. Grant - Electronic Journal for the Integration of Technology in Education, Vol. 2, No. 1, Spring 2003

Abstract: A complementary relationship exists between technology and constructivism, the implementation of each one benefiting the other. Constructivism is a doctrine stating that learning takes place in contexts, while technology refers to the designs and environments that engage learners. Recent attempts to integrate technology in the classroom have been within the context of a constructivist framework (e.g., Richards, 1998). The purpose of this paper is to examine the interrelationship between constructivism and technology as revealed by empirical research. The cases include a variety of studies in a variety of settings – teacher education, online learning, and K-12 education; constructivist strategies include collaborative and cooperative learning methods, engaging in critical and reflective thinking, evaluation through electronic portfolios, and a critical look at emerging teacher roles within constructivist paradigms. Success has been reported in the development of constructivist course modules using technology as cognitive tools, benefiting both students and faculty. However, many teachers do not use constructivist practices, and those who do are not judicious in their selection of technology use (Rakes, Flowers, Casey, & Santana, 1999).

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Friday, 02 July 2010 14:21

19th. Advanced Course of the Archives Jean Piaget

Thinking, Reasoning, and Development

J30 June - 2 July 2010

University of Geneva, Switzerland

 

" فکر کردن، استدلال کردن  و توسعه [1] "

گزارشی از نوزدهمین دوره پیشرفته معرفت‌شناسی سازاگرا

دانشگاه ژنو،‌ آرشیو پیاژه: 30 ژوئن.-2 ژوئیه 2010

نوشته: دکتر فریده مشایخ

f.mashayekh @ pedagogy.ir

یکی از مهمترین جنبه‌های نظریه ژان ‌پیاژه، معرفت شناس سوئیسی (1980-1896) و موسس مرکز بين‌المللی معرفت‌شناسی ژنتیک در ژنو (1955)، درک چگونگی توسعه شناخت در افراد و فرایند گذار از یک سطح شناختی به سطح پیچیده‌تر است. از نظر پیاژه شناخت یک وضعیت ثابت نیست، بلکه یک فرایند سازگارسازی مداوم و در حال تغییر است. از این رو شناخت برای پیاژه از زاویه توسعه فکر کردن و استدلال کردن، در طی گذر از مراحل سه‌گانهء حسی-حرکتی به عملیات عینی و در نهایت عملیات انتزاعی و منطقی-ریاضی، مورد مطالعه قرار گرفته است. از نظر وی شناخت یک فرایند است که نه به آغاز و نه به پایان مطلق آن می‌توان رسید. از این رو ، با توجه به محوریت توسعه منطقی در فرایند "شدن" به جای "بودن"، نظریه او از دیدگاه علم و هنر یاددهی-یادگیری، در برگیرنده حوزه گسترده سازاگرائی شناختی (cognitive constructivism) است، که روانشناسی توسعه(developmental psychology) بخشی از آن را تشکیل می‌دهد. برای پیاژه استدلال کردن معادل با هوشمندانه فکرکردن، یعنی از قواعد منطق صوری پیروی نمودن ،است.

از دیدگاه پیاژه امر آموزش، به علت پیچیدگی، می‌تواند هم مسئول "بهترین" و هم مسئول "بدترین" وضعیت باشد. حالت "بهترین" وضعیتی است که آموزش به فرد یادگیرنده امکان می‌دهد از نقطه شروع فاصله گرفته و نسبت به عینیت و تجربه کردن گشاده‌رو باشد. و "بدترین" وضعیت هنگامی‌ است که آموزش امکان گشودگی را فراهم نمی‌کند و زندان خودمداری و اقتدار می‌گردد. غایت آموزش را در آزادسازی انسان از خودمداری و فراهم ساختن امکان ارتقاء، فرا رفتن و یادگیری مداوم باید جستجو کرد.

این دیدگاه فراکنشی منشاء بحث‌های-همچنان-ادامه‌دار درباره ماهیت و ریشه‌های شناخت و عقلانیت انسان از زوایای گوناگون علوم ‌شناختی قرار گرفته است. طبق مطالعات انجام گرفته طی سه‌ دهه گذشته (www.archivespiaget.ch) ، بر مبنای دیدگاه کلاسیک پیاژه،‌ توانایی استدلال منطقی در کودکان خیلی زودتر از مرحله عملیات صوری که توسط پیاژه اعلام شده بود (12 تا 15 سالگی) ، گزارش شده است. با گسترش و شکوفائی پژوهش‌های  تجربی نو "پسا- پیاژه [2] " پژوهشگران به تدوین نظریه‌های جدید دست یافته‌اند ،از جمله "نظریه دوذهن [3] " .با توجه به غنا و تنوع پژوهشهای تجربی انجام گرفتهء مرتبط با نظریه پیاژه ، آرشیو پیاژه-که بعداز درگذشت وی، در دانشگاه ژنو تاسیس شده است-در پاسداری از خواستگاه وی، هر دو سال یک‌بار برای علاقه‌مندان متخصص از جمله دانشگاهیان، پژوهشگران، دانشجویان تحصیلات تکمیلی به ویژه دانشجویان دکتری، فرصت تبادل شناخت و برقراری گفت‌وگو با صاحب‌نظران را در مقیاس جهانی فراهم ساخته است.در این باره ،تا سال 2009 میلادی هیجده دوره پیشرفته(آموزشی- پژوهشی )بوسیله آرشیو پیاژه برگزار شده است.

در تیرماه 1389 (ژوئیه 2010 میلادی) نوزدهمین دوره پیشرفته آرشیو پیاژه، از تاریخ 30 ژوئن تا2 ژوئیه 2010 ، در دانشگاه ژنو برگزار شد و  موضوع آن به "فکرکردن، استدلال کردن و توسعه" اختصاص داشت. این دوره در دو بخش سخنرانی و پوسترخوانی به شرح زیر برگزار شد:

1- سخنرانی

در بخش سخنرانی 13 عضو هیات علمی از دانشگاههای ایالات متحده (از جمله تمپل، کلرادو، کرنل و کارنگی- ملون)،‌ انگلستان (کمبریج و لنکستر)،‌ کانادا، ژاپن، فرانسه، سوئیس و اسپانیا آخرین یافته‌های پژوهشهای تجربی خود را عرضه نمودند.

موضوع‌های مورد بررسی بیشتر بر فرایندهای دوگانه فکرکردن و استدلال کردن تحلیلی-منطقی [4] و شهودی [5] متمرکز بود.

2- پوسترخوانی

در این بخش یافته‌های پژوهش‌های تجربی دانشجویان دکترا، جمعا به تعداد 23 پوستر در زمینه‌های استدلال و تصمیم‌گیری؛ و آموزش و توسعه شناختی با حضور دانشجویان عرضه و مورد پرسش و پاسخ قرار گرفت. برای اطلاع بیشتر و دسترسی به متن مقالات و پوسترهای ارائه شده در این دوره می‌توان به سایت آرشیو پیاژه مراجعه نمود:

.   www.archivespiaget.ch

[1] - Thinking, Reasoning, and development

[2] - post-Piaget

[3] - Two minds theory

[4] -  analytic – logic thinking

[5] -intuitive-heuristic thinking


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Wednesday, 30 June 2010 17:58

Learning and Teaching; Piaget's developmental theory - ATHERTON J S (2009)

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a biologist who originally studied molluscs (publishing twenty scientific papers on them by the time he was 21) but moved into the study of the development of children's understanding, through observing them and talking and listening to them while they worked on exercises he set.

"Piaget's work on children's intellectual development owed much to his early studies of water snails"

(Satterly, 1987:622)

His view of how children's minds work and develop has been enormously influential, particularly in educational theory. His particular insight was the role of maturation (simply growing up) in children's increasing capacity to understand their world: they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so. His research has spawned a great deal more, much of which has undermined the detail of his own, but like many other original investigators, his importance comes from his overall vision.

He proposed that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly: instead, there are certain points at which it "takes off" and moves into completely new areas and capabilities. He saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This has been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of understanding things in certain ways, and has been used as the basis for scheduling the school curriculum. Whether or not should be the case is a different matter.

Piaget's Key Ideas

Adaptation What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.
Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation. 
Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without the other.
Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.
Class Inclusion The understanding, more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs)
Conservation The realisation that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different.

Decentration

The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as appropriate.
Egocentrism The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development.
Operation The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out (like count on fingers): older children and adults can do more in their heads.
Schema (or scheme) The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go together.
Stage A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of understanding some things but not others

Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Characterised by
Sensori-motor
(Birth-2 yrs) 		Differentiates self from objects

Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise

Achieves object permanence: realises that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense (pace Bishop Berkeley)

Pre-operational
(2-7 years) 		Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words

Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others

Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour

Concrete operational
(7-11 years) 		Can think logically about objects and events

Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)

Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single dimension such as size.

Formal operational
(11 years and up) 		Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systemtically

Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems

The accumulating evidence is that this scheme is too rigid: many children manage concrete operations earlier than he thought, and some people never attain formal operations (or at least are not called upon to use them).

Piaget's approach is central to the school of cognitive theory known as "cognitive constructivism": other scholars, known as "social constructivists", such as Vygotsky and Bruner, have laid more emphasis on the part played by language and other people in enabling children to learn.

And the combination of neuroscience and evolutionary psychology is beginning to suggest that the overall developmental model is based on dubious premises. (It's too early to give authoritative references for this angle.)

Piaget Reading

DONALDSON M (1984) Children's Minds London Fontana (readable and critical)

SATTERLY D (1987) "Piaget and Education" in R L Gregory (ed.) The Oxford Companion to the Mind Oxford, Oxford University Press

WOOD D (1998) How Children Think and Learn (2nd edition) Oxford; Blackwell Publishing.

Source: learningandteaching.info
 
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